Burma (Myanmar) was administered by Britain from the 19th century until 1948 independence. Colonial legacies shaped its legal; administrative; and economic structures. Neighboring Mozambique and Vietnam were Portuguese and French colonies; respectively.
Morgenthau’s classical realism posits politics as power; guided by interest defined as power. He emphasized prudence; historical consciousness; and the limits of morality in statecraft. The six principles introduced a systematic realist framework.
Bentham’s utilitarianism evaluates actions by their consequences for overall happiness. The “greatest happiness of the greatest number” became a reformist metric. It influenced economics; law; and public policy.
Lincoln’s Gettysburg formulation distilled popular sovereignty and accountable governance. The triad remains the most cited encapsulation of democratic rule. It frames democracy as both process and purpose.
Hobbes described pre-political life as “solitary; poor; nasty; brutish; and short.” The insecurity of that condition motivates creation of an absolute sovereign. His anthropology grounds order in authority.
Al-Farabi synthesized Plato’s and Aristotle’s ideas into a comprehensive political philosophy. He mapped ethics to civic organization in the virtuous city. His commentaries shaped later Islamic and European thought.
Public Service Commissions are often labeled an extra but essential “fifth wheel;” stabilizing recruitment and merit. They insulate appointments from partisan pressures. Their independence supports administrative neutrality.
Judicial review enables the US Supreme Court to check legislative and executive actions against the Constitution. Landmark rulings recalibrate power boundaries. The Court’s role is central to checks and balances.
John Austin conceptualized sovereignty as legally unlimited power within a territory. His command theory underpins analytical jurisprudence. The model clarified legal authority apart from moral claims.
The discipline spans institutions (government); the entity that claims sovereignty (state); and the distribution of influence (power). Approaches range from legal-institutional to behavioral and critical. Comparative and international analysis extend its scope.
Marx treated freedom as realized through social relations; not isolated will. Emancipation requires transforming material conditions and class structures. Collective action thus enables genuine human development.
John Locke argued for natural rights—life; liberty; property—and government by consent. He justified resistance when rulers violate trust. His ideas underpinned constitutional liberalism.
In constitutional law “the Crown never dies” and is never under age; the office’s legal personality is continuous. Practically; a regency acts when a monarch is a minor or incapacitated. The doctrine ensures seamless sovereignty.
Rousseau’s General Will expresses the common good of the citizen body; distinct from private interests. It legitimizes laws in a republic of equal citizens. Participation and civic virtue are essential to its formation.
The modern state is territorially bounded; sovereign; and typically organized around a nation as a political community. It monopolizes legitimate coercion and taxation. National identity anchors legitimacy and mobilization.
Ascribed status is inherited or assigned at birth; not earned. It contrasts with achieved status; which results from actions or merit. Sociologists analyze how ascription structures opportunities.
Ramsay Muir argued that anonymous civil servants can expand influence when ministers front public accountability. The observation sparked debates over transparency and administrative control. It remains central to Westminster-style governance critiques.
Aristotle praised “polity;” a mixed constitution balancing rule of the many with rule of the virtuous. It blends elements of democracy and oligarchy to stabilize the middle class. The aim is moderation and civic virtue.
In Rousseau’s variant; sovereignty rests with the people expressed as the General Will; a basis for direct participation. Contractarian thought legitimized authority through consent rather than lineage. It reoriented politics toward popular sovereignty.
John Austin’s analytical jurisprudence distinguished law “as it is” from law “as it ought to be.” He defined law as the command of the sovereign backed by sanctions. This positivist turn shaped modern legal theory.