Lecturer Political Science (BS-17) – Higher Education Department Punjab – 2022

Ibn Khaldun framed ‘asabiyya as group solidarity that drives state formation and decline. He used it to explain how desert tribes conquer; rule; and then decay as cohesion weakens. The concept sits at the core of his cyclical theory of history in the Muqaddimah.

In a parliamentary system the executive is “responsible” to the legislature and can fall on a vote of no confidence. Cabinet members are politically accountable to the elected house. Collective and individual ministerial responsibility define the model.

“Proletariat” denotes the working class in Marxist analysis. The term contrasts with the bourgeoisie; who own capital. Political appeals to the proletariat target labor rights; redistribution; and class emancipation.

Al-Farabi produced influential digests of Greek political philosophy; including Plato. His summaries bridge Hellenic thought and medieval Islamic political theory. They helped transmit ideas on constitutions; education; and the virtuous city.

Universal adult franchise removes distinctions of property; gender; race; or tax status. It grounds political legitimacy in equal citizenship. Modern democracies treat it as a core institutional norm.

Switzerland’s Federal Council is a collegial body of seven co-equal members. Decisions are taken collectively; and the rotating presidency is largely ceremonial. This plural executive diffuses power and encourages consensus.

Abraham Lincoln tied liberty to universal principles; insisting those who value freedom must grant it to others. His rhetoric linked emancipation with the survival of democratic government. The moral reciprocity in his speeches shaped American political ideals.

Jean (John) Bodin articulated sovereignty as absolute; perpetual; and indivisible authority within a territory. He emphasized the legal source of ultimate command. Later theorists refined the distinction between legal and political sovereignty.

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) sets global standards; allocates spectrum; and coordinates satellite orbits. It predates the UN but is now a specialized agency within the system. Its work underpins interoperability of modern networks.

Hobbes’ social contract transfers individuals’ rights to a sovereign to escape the anarchic “state of nature.” Security and order justify obedience to the Leviathan. The concept later shaped liberal and republican variants of contract theory.

Ascribed status is inherited or assigned at birth; not earned. It contrasts with achieved status; which results from actions or merit. Sociologists analyze how ascription structures opportunities.

Ramsay Muir argued that anonymous civil servants can expand influence when ministers front public accountability. The observation sparked debates over transparency and administrative control. It remains central to Westminster-style governance critiques.

Aristotle praised “polity;” a mixed constitution balancing rule of the many with rule of the virtuous. It blends elements of democracy and oligarchy to stabilize the middle class. The aim is moderation and civic virtue.

In Rousseau’s variant; sovereignty rests with the people expressed as the General Will; a basis for direct participation. Contractarian thought legitimized authority through consent rather than lineage. It reoriented politics toward popular sovereignty.

John Austin’s analytical jurisprudence distinguished law “as it is” from law “as it ought to be.” He defined law as the command of the sovereign backed by sanctions. This positivist turn shaped modern legal theory.

Henry Kissinger’s 1957 study examined limited nuclear options and deterrence strategy. It influenced Cold War policy circles and doctrinal debates. The book framed credibility and escalation control as central issues.

Electoral reforms in the late 19th century curbed proxy voting abuses to reduce corruption. The broader sequence professionalized administration of polls. These measures complemented franchise expansions.

Montesquieu advocated separating legislative; executive; and judicial functions to prevent tyranny. The idea shaped US constitutional design and later liberal democracies. Checks and balances operationalize the separation.

Al-Farabi’s “Opinions of the People of the Virtuous City” presents an ideal polity guided by a philosopher-king. It blends Greek philosophy with Islamic thought. The work became foundational in classical Islamic political philosophy.

Aristotle held that humans realize their telos within the polis. Speech and moral reasoning; in his view; make civic life natural. Politics thus emerges from our sociability.

John Locke argued for natural rights—life; liberty; property—and government by consent. He justified resistance when rulers violate trust. His ideas underpinned constitutional liberalism.

In constitutional law “the Crown never dies” and is never under age; the office’s legal personality is continuous. Practically; a regency acts when a monarch is a minor or incapacitated. The doctrine ensures seamless sovereignty.

Rousseau’s General Will expresses the common good of the citizen body; distinct from private interests. It legitimizes laws in a republic of equal citizens. Participation and civic virtue are essential to its formation.

The modern state is territorially bounded; sovereign; and typically organized around a nation as a political community. It monopolizes legitimate coercion and taxation. National identity anchors legitimacy and mobilization.

The US Vice President serves as President of the Senate and may cast tie-breaking votes. Day-to-day presiding often falls to the President pro tempore or designated senators. The arrangement links executive and legislative branches.

Burma (Myanmar) was administered by Britain from the 19th century until 1948 independence. Colonial legacies shaped its legal; administrative; and economic structures. Neighboring Mozambique and Vietnam were Portuguese and French colonies; respectively.

Morgenthau’s classical realism posits politics as power; guided by interest defined as power. He emphasized prudence; historical consciousness; and the limits of morality in statecraft. The six principles introduced a systematic realist framework.

Bentham’s utilitarianism evaluates actions by their consequences for overall happiness. The “greatest happiness of the greatest number” became a reformist metric. It influenced economics; law; and public policy.

Lincoln’s Gettysburg formulation distilled popular sovereignty and accountable governance. The triad remains the most cited encapsulation of democratic rule. It frames democracy as both process and purpose.

Hobbes described pre-political life as “solitary; poor; nasty; brutish; and short.” The insecurity of that condition motivates creation of an absolute sovereign. His anthropology grounds order in authority.

Al-Farabi synthesized Plato’s and Aristotle’s ideas into a comprehensive political philosophy. He mapped ethics to civic organization in the virtuous city. His commentaries shaped later Islamic and European thought.

Public Service Commissions are often labeled an extra but essential “fifth wheel;” stabilizing recruitment and merit. They insulate appointments from partisan pressures. Their independence supports administrative neutrality.

Judicial review enables the US Supreme Court to check legislative and executive actions against the Constitution. Landmark rulings recalibrate power boundaries. The Court’s role is central to checks and balances.

John Austin conceptualized sovereignty as legally unlimited power within a territory. His command theory underpins analytical jurisprudence. The model clarified legal authority apart from moral claims.

The discipline spans institutions (government); the entity that claims sovereignty (state); and the distribution of influence (power). Approaches range from legal-institutional to behavioral and critical. Comparative and international analysis extend its scope.

Marx treated freedom as realized through social relations; not isolated will. Emancipation requires transforming material conditions and class structures. Collective action thus enables genuine human development.

Monism identifies the state as the single locus of ultimate legal authority. All other bodies derive powers from it. Pluralists contest this by emphasizing autonomous associations.

“Kindly” functions as an adverb modifying “spoke.” “Kind” is an adjective and “kindness” a noun; so neither fits verb modification. Usage highlights part-of-speech roles in sentence structure.

In unitary systems; subnational units exist by central grant and can be reorganized by statute. Policy uniformity is easier to achieve. The UK and France are classic examples.

Political liberties relate to participation—voting; running for office; and expressive freedoms. Moving courts concerns civil/legal remedies rather than direct political participation. The distinction clarifies different rights families.

Comparative analysis examines institutions and processes across countries to identify patterns. It separates context-specific from generalizable features. The approach underpins much modern political science.

Welfare administration spans design; delivery; and oversight of social protection. It coordinates agencies; financing; and eligibility rules. Implementation capacity determines outcomes.

The legislature dominates through control of government formation; confidence; and lawmaking. Cabinets depend on legislative majorities to survive. Parliamentary sovereignty is a related doctrine in some systems.

Pluralists highlight external and internal checks on state absolutism. International law binds states through treaties and customary norms. Domestic associations likewise constrain government power.

F. W. Maitland argued corporations and associations have real social existence beyond state concession. This critique undercuts monistic sovereignty. It informed later functional and corporate theories.

Devolution brings decision-making closer to citizens for responsiveness and accountability. Local bodies manage services; planning; and taxation within assigned competences. They cultivate participatory governance.

Secularism protects religious freedom by separating state authority from religious control. It enables plural practices within a neutral legal framework. The emphasis is liberty of conscience.

Administrative competence; fiscal strength; and legitimacy domestically affect credibility in international arenas. States that govern well internally project influence more effectively. Capacity travels across levels of action.

Diplomacy manages differences of opinion to avoid conflict and secure interests. It relies on negotiation; signaling; and compromise. The art lies in reconciling incompatible preferences.

Historical materialism explains social change through evolving productive forces and class relations. Institutions reflect material conditions rather than ideas alone. The method anchors Marxist analysis of politics.

The presiding officer is the Lord Speaker in the reformed House of Lords. Before 2006 the Lord Chancellor presided. The role manages debate and order in the chamber.

R. N. Gilchrist framed the field around institutions and their workings. This classical definition preceded behavioral expansions into power and political behavior. It remains foundational in textbooks.

Contractarianism legitimized authority by consent; fueling constitutionalism and citizenship. It displaced divine right with popular sovereignty. Modern states drew on these principles to structure legal order.

Parliamentary procedure provides for a minimal presence to commence proceedings and a higher threshold for formal decisions. Historical practice often distinguished between sitting and voting requirements. The Speaker oversees compliance with standing orders.

The UN promulgated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and core treaties. Bodies like the Human Rights Council and treaty committees monitor compliance. Its instruments seeded national legal reforms.

The People’s Republic of China is ruled by a communist party and describes its system as “socialism with Chinese characteristics.” State ownership and planning coexist with market mechanisms. Political monopoly defines the regime type.

Parliamentary executives answer daily to the legislature and face periodic elections. Question Time; votes; and committees hold ministers to account. The feedback loop is continuous.

Absolute sovereignty asserts indivisible; ultimate authority. It rejects divided or shared supremacy. Monism grounds legal order in a single apex source.

The Constitution is silent on political parties; and some framers distrusted factions. Parties nevertheless emerged as indispensable organizing structures. They later became pillars of American democracy.

Lincoln tied moral desert to universal freedom; a theme consistent with his wartime leadership. He framed liberty as indivisible in a just order. The quote endures in civil rights rhetoric.

Many unitary states operate with uncodified arrangements and flexible amendment methods; while others codify rigidly; the central idea is centralized supremacy. Unitary design simplifies constitutional change by statute. The contrast is with federal entrenchment.

Aristotle’s politeia links the being of a state to its constitution—the ordering of offices and authority. Different constitutions yield different regimes and citizens. The state is inseparable from its constitutional form.

Syed Hussain Bilgrami prepared the memorandum for the 1906 Simla Deputation to the Viceroy. It sought political safeguards for Indian Muslims. The event catalyzed the formation of the Muslim League.

Sir Frank Messervy briefly served as Pakistan’s first Commander-in-Chief after independence. British officers initially held top commands pending localization. Pakistani leadership followed in quick succession.

Hyderabad initially sought independence under the Nizam. The stand-off ended with Indian police action in 1948 and accession to India. The episode highlighted princely state dilemmas.

Tehreek-e-Istiqlal (1967) advocated constitutionalism and clean politics. It contested early elections and later joined opposition alliances. Asghar Khan’s stature gave it national visibility.

Pakistan’s external agenda intertwines security; the Kashmir dispute; and economic connectivity. Priorities adapt to regional shifts and global alignments. Policy instruments include alliances; CBMs; and trade corridors.

The Constitution prescribes 30 years; along with citizenship and voter registration requirements. Candidates are elected by provincial assemblies via STV. Tenure spans six years with staggered renewal.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman outlined a foreign policy of non-alignment and goodwill. The phrase signaled de-escalation and development focus. It became a hallmark of Bangladesh’s early diplomacy.

Waqar-ul-Mulk; a key Aligarh Movement leader; steered institutional governance during expansion. His organizational skills complemented educational reform. The network nurtured a generation of Muslim leaders.

Rear Admiral James Wilfred Jefford led the nascent Pakistan Navy post-1947. Early priorities included fleet transfer; training; and base development. Pakistani admirals succeeded him as localization advanced.

The 1973 Constitution embeds Islam as state religion; sets up CII and Federal Shariat Court; and mandates Quran-Sunnah conformity. Objectives Resolution stands as a substantive preamble. Amendments have refined these mechanisms.

Statutory composition provides reserved seats to ensure women’s participation in Islamic legal advice. The CII reviews bills and recommends Shariah compatibility. Its reports inform parliamentary deliberation.

Armed volunteers and tribal fighters entered the theater following 1947 unrest; with escalations continuing into 1948. The UN intervened with ceasefire arrangements. The conflict set enduring fault lines.

Diamer-Bhasha combines significant hydropower generation with storage to regulate Indus flows. It aims to extend reservoir life downstream and enhance energy security. The project features large civil works and relocation components.

The Morley–Minto Reforms introduced communal electorates for Muslims in 1909. Later reforms expanded representation and franchise. The arrangement reshaped colonial electoral politics.

Shah Waliullah analyzed wisdom behind Islamic laws; seeking reconciliation of juristic schools. His synthesis influenced South Asian reformers. The work integrates theology with social philosophy.

Boundary demarcations and reaffirmations in the 1960s settled frontier alignment. Such treaties clarify jurisdiction; security cooperation; and cross-border management. They enabled subsequent connectivity projects.

The report examined communal and political developments on the eve of wartime transitions. Its findings informed party strategies. It sits among pre-partition inquiry documents.

The Bogra Formula proposed parity between East and West wings in a bicameral arrangement. It was labeled a constitutional formula to break deadlock. Though not adopted; it influenced later debates.

Justice Teja Singh participated in the boundary adjudications for Punjab. The Commission faced intense demographic and political pressures. Its award shaped partition lines and migrations.

The high-altitude Shandur Pass hosts freestyle polo between Gilgit-Baltistan and Chitral teams. The July event blends sport with music and camping. It showcases mountain culture and tourism.

President Iskandar (Iskander) Mirza imposed martial law in October 1958 and annulled the 1956 Constitution. Soon after; Ayub Khan assumed control. The episode ended Pakistan’s first parliamentary experiment.

On 23 March 1956 Pakistan adopted its first constitution and became the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The Governor-General’s office ended; replaced by a President. Republic Day commemorates the event.

The Resolution vests sovereignty in Allah; with authority exercised by the people within His limits. It frames moral boundaries for legislation. The text anchors constitutional identity.

Junagarh’s Muslim ruler opted for Pakistan despite a Hindu-majority population. India intervened; a subsequent plebiscite favored India. The episode added to early accession controversies.

Financial legislation originates with the government through the finance portfolio. Constitutional rules restrict who may move such bills and in which house. The aim is fiscal discipline and coherence.

The idiom points to layered complications or hidden factors inside an issue. It signals interacting sub-problems rather than a single cause. Analysts use it to warn against simplistic fixes.

Antipater of Sidon compiled a celebrated list praising human marvels like the Great Pyramid and Hanging Gardens. The canon influenced later travel and art literature. Most entries are lost to time.

Mitochondria generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. They host their own DNA and regulate apoptosis. Energy metabolism depends heavily on their function.

H5N1 is an avian influenza A subtype with zoonotic potential. Outbreaks in birds occasionally infect humans with high case fatality. Surveillance and culling break transmission chains.

Entomology covers insect taxonomy; physiology; and ecology. It informs agriculture; vector control; and biodiversity conservation. Insects dominate terrestrial species richness.

Standard 12-cm CD-ROMs store roughly 650–700 MB; 680 MB is a common nominal figure. Data layout uses error correction to ensure reliability. Multi-session and mode formats tweak capacity marginally.

Legacy Excel versions opened workbooks with three sheets; users could add or change the default. Versions vary; but the exam convention treats “3” as standard. Sheet tabs organize related tables.

The ladder is the hypotenuse with adjacent = 4.6 m and cos 60° = 0.5. Length = 4.6 ÷ 0.5 = 9.2 m. Trigonometry links angles to side ratios in right triangles.

Passive past-simple interrogatives convert to active with “Did + subject + base verb.” “Dried” after “did” is incorrect; the base form “dry” is required. Pronouns remain consistent with the original.

Present simple active becomes present simple passive

Exclamations take reporting verbs like “exclaimed with joy.” Present perfect shifts to past perfect under backshifting (“have won” → “had won”). Pronouns change from “we” to “they” appropriately.